PROBATE, DIVORCE &
ADMIRALTY DIVISION ADAMS v. ADAMS
(ATTORNEY-GENERAL INTERVENING) Published as:
[1971] P. 188 [This is one of a
few key post-1940 English judgments transcribed by volunteers in full-text for
scholarly political discussion of international-law issues: United States users
see 17
U.S.C §107; Canadian users see Copyright
Act 50-year duration and fair dealing exceptions] COUNSEL: Michael Havers Q.C., Geoffrey Leach and T. Ellis-Lewis for
the wife. SOLICITORS: Lovell, White & King for Leathes, Prior & Son,
Norwich; Treasury Solicitor. JUDGE: Sir Jocelyn Simon P. DATES: 1970 June 15; July 22, 23, 24; 31 Husband and Wife – Divorce – Foreign decree,
validity – Domicile, decree by court of – Judge appointed
after U.D.I. by rebellious government in Rhodesia – Whether decree
entitled to recognition. International Law – Recognition – Crown colony
– Territory under effective control of usurping government
– Whether conception of de facto or de jure status applicable to
judge appointed by usurping government – Southern Rhodesia. Rhodesia – Constitution – Declaration of
Independence – Divorce decree granted to wife domiciled in Rhodesia
by judge appointed after U.D.I. – Whether decree entitled to
recognition. Law Reform – Whether necessary – Domicile
– Outmoded rule that wifes domicile depends on that of
husband. In 1923, the territory known as Southern Rhodesia was annexed by
the Crown and given the status of a colony. In 1961, the territory received a
constitution by the Southern Rhodesia (Constitution) Order in Council, 1961.
The provisions of that order dealing with the judicature were repealed and
replaced by the Constitution Amendment Act, 1964, which was rendered necessary
by the break-up of the Central African Federation. Under that constitution (the
1961/64 Constitution) judges of the High Court of Southern Rhodesia were
appointed by the Governor, on the advice of the Prime
Minister and a judge could not enter upon the duties of his office
unless he had taken before the Governor or some person authorised by him an
oath of allegiance to the Queen and the judicial oath in prescribed form, by
which he promised to serve the Queen in his office. On November 11, 1965, the Prime Minister of Southern Rhodesia and
his colleagues issued a Declaration of Independence (U.D.I.), purporting to
declare that Southern Rhodesia was no longer a Crown colony. On the same day,
the Governor declared that the Declaration of Independence was unconstitutional
and that the Prime Minister and his colleagues had ceased to hold office. The
Prime Minister and his colleagues, however, disregarded their dismissal from
office and the members of the legislative assembly disregarded their suspension
and purported to adopt a new constitution (the 1965
Constitution). They replaced that constitution in 1969 by a new,
republican constitution (the 1969 Constitution). On March 2, 1970, the Secretary of State for Foreign and
Commonwealth Affairs stated in Parliament that those who continued to serve a
r使ime which asserted illegally that Southern Rhodesia was a republic, like
those appointed by the r使ime, could not be regarded as serving the Crown in
Southern Rhodesia. On July 21, 1970, the Secretary of State for Foreign and
Commonwealth Affairs certified that the British Government did not recognise
Southern Rhodesia (or Rhodesia) as a state, either de facto or de jure. On April 9, 1970, a wife, an Englishwoman who had, on December 29,
1965, married in Southern Rhodesia a man who was domiciled there, was granted a
decree of divorce in the High Court of Rhodesia by Macaulay J., who was [*189] appointed a judge on
November 2, 1968, under the 1965 Constitution. The wife desired to remarry in England but could not obtain a
marriage licence because the Registrar-General of Births, Deaths and Marriages
would not recognise her Rhodesian divorce decree as a valid judgment of a
lawful court. The wife therefore petitioned the court for a declaration that the
Rhodesian decree was valid. She conceded that the 1961/64 Constitution was the
only legally valid constitution, but contended that her decree should be
recognised under the doctrine of necessity, alternatively,
that Macaulay J., though not a judge de jure, was a judge de facto, and that,
as such, his judgments were entitled to recognition. The Attorney-General
intervened in the suit and opposed the wifes contention:- Held, dismissing the petition, that for a judgment to be
recognised by the English courts, it must be pronounced by a court competent to
pronounce it (1), according to our rules of private international law and (2),
by its municipal law. The Rhodesian court satisfied the first condition, but in
considering the second condition, which was crucial in the present case, the
courts of Rhodesia must be taken to be correctly applying the law as laid down
by the Queen in Parliament in the United Kingdom, and, in particular, the
1961/64 Constitution (post, p. 207G). The court would assume that Macaulay J.
was personally qualified under the 1961/64 Constitution, but as he failed to
comply with section 55 (5) which required him to be appointed by the Governor,
or with section 54 (3) of the Constitution Amendment Act, 1964, which required
him on his appointment to take the oath of allegiance and the judicial oath in
the prescribed form before the Governor or some person authorised by him, he
was not a judge de jure of the High Court of Rhodesia (post, p. 208G) and the
wifes decree should not be accepted by the courts of Rhodesia as
validly dissolving the marriage by their municipal law (post p. 214H). Further,
although the doctrine of the validity of acts of de facto officers was part of
English law, neither that nor the doctrine of necessity
entitled the English court to accord recognition to the judicial acts of
Macaulay J. Madzimbamuto v. Lardner-Burke [1969] 1 A.C. 645; [1968] 3 W.L.R.
1229; [1968] 3 All E.R. 561, P.C. followed. Per Sir Jocelyn Simon P. It would be a constitutional anomaly for
our courts to recognise the validity of the acts of Macaulay J. as a de facto
judge while the executive acts of those appointing him (which must include his
very appointment) are refused recognition de facto by the executive here (post,
p. 214F). This case is yet one further illustration of the unsatisfactory
basis of the divorce jurisdiction of the English court and of the now
completely outmoded legal concept that the domicile of a married woman is
dependent on that of her husband (post, p. 216E-F). The Attorney-General has a right of intervention in a private suit
wherever it may affect the prerogatives of the Crown, including its relations
with foreign states, and also, at the invitation or with the permission of the
court, where the suit raises any question of public policy on which the
executive may have a view which it may desire to bring to the notice of the
court (post. p. 198A-B). [*190] SUIT for declaratory judgment. On December 29, 1965, the petitioning wife, Joanna Sylvia Adams,
who was born and brought up in England, went through a ceremony of [*191] marriage in
Salisbury, Rhodesia, with the respondent husband, Raymond Thomas Every Adams,
who had acquired a domicile of choice in Rhodesia. There was one child of the
marriage, Robin Mary, who was born on March 5, 1967. In March, 1969, the wife
left the husband and returned to England. She then instituted proceedings in
Salisbury for the restoration of her conjugal rights and, failing compliance
therewith, for divorce. On February 12, 1970, the suit came before Goldin J. in
the General Division of the High Court of Rhodesia. Goldin J. had been
appointed to the bench before November 11, 1965, the date of the Declaration of
Independence (U.D.I.). The husband apparently put in no defence in the suit,
although he appeared in person before the court. Goldin J. granted the wife a
decree of restitution of conjugal rights and called upon the husband, in the
event of non-compliance with that decree, to show cause why the court should
not grant the wife a decree of divorce on April 9, 1970. The husband failed to
comply with the order of February 12, with the result that on April 9, the
matter came before Macaulay J., who had been appointed to the bench on November
2, 1968. Macaulay J. pronounced a decree of divorce, with costs, and made a
custody and maintenance order in respect of the child. Thereafter, the wife
wished to remarry in England, but the superintendent registrar of marriages, to
whom application for a licence was made, refused, on the advice of the
Registrar-General of Births, Deaths, and Marriages, to grant a licence, the
Registrar-General taking the view that a divorce decree granted by a Rhodesian
court, whether or not granted by a judge appointed before U.D.I., would not be
recognised as a valid judgment of a lawful court. The wife petitioned the court under R.S.C., Ord. 15, r. 16 and
Ord. 112, r. 3 for a declaration that the marriage was validly dissolved by the
decree of the High Court of Rhodesia dated April 9, 1970. The Attorney-General
intervened in the suit. The husband took no part in the proceedings. Michael Havers Q.C., Geoffrey Leach and T. Ellis-Lewis for the
wife. The proceedings in the Rhodesian court should be regarded as being, in
essence, a restitution suit, to which the divorce was merely a sequel
consequent upon the husbands disobedience to the decree of
restitution of conjugal rights granted by Goldin J. to the wife on February 12,
1970. As Goldin J. had been appointed a judge before U.D.I., there was no basis
for challenging the validity of the decree made by him. If that decree were
recognised the divorce decree could be regarded as ancillary to it and a matter
of routine and equally entitled to recognition. Alternatively, the change in the
wifes status brought about by the divorce should be recognised under
the doctrine of necessity: see Madzimbamuto v. Lardner-Burke [1969] 1 A.C. 645. It is conceded that the purported supplanting by the illegal
r使ime of the 1961/64 Constitution and the purported adoption first of the 1965
Constitution and later of the 1969 Constitution are all invalid in English law.
However, the divorce decree granted to the wife, being a matter of personal
status and not a matter concerning the state, should not be affected by
constitutional changes. It is therefore immaterial whether the judge who
pronounced the divorce decree was appointed before or after U.D.I. [*192] Considerations of natural justice require that this divorce decree
should be recognised by this court so long as it is a decree which would have
been valid if it had been pronounced before U.D.I. and relates to a branch of
the law which has not been changed by U.D.I. and in which the only effect of
U.D.I. is that the judge who pronounced the decree was not appointed in
accordance with the 1961 Constitution. The regulations made by the United Kingdom Parliament under the
Southern Rhodesia Act, 1965, enabled the Secretary of State to approve or
reject any post-U.D.I. appointment to the Rhodesian judiciary. The appointment
of Macaulay J. was not questioned and should therefore be regarded as impliedly
approved by the Secretary of State. This would entitle any order made by
Macaulay J. to recognition. If the argument on behalf of the Attorney-General were correct, it
would mean that all civil marriages celebrated in Rhodesia since U.D.I. were
invalid in the eyes of English law. Parliament could not have intended to
produce that result. [Reference was made to Anisminic Ltd. v. Foreign
Compensation Commission [1969] 2 A.C. 147 and Buckley v. Edwards [1892] A.C. 387.] Louis Blom-Cooper Q.C. and Gordon Slynn for the Attorney-General.
The role of the Attorney-General in this suit is not to oppose the
wifes prayer for relief but to assist the court in arriving at a
legally correct decision. He views with no relish the application of a legal
rule which might have the effect of denying recognition to a colonial divorce
decree, simply on the ground that Her Majestys Ministers in the
colony whose courts have pronounced the decree are in rebellion against the
Crown. But the Attorney-General sees it as his duty to place before the court
the relevant law, even if the result of its application is to deny recognition
to this or any other Rhodesian decree of divorce. If the effect of the Rhodesian rebellion is to cause a number of
persons to suffer the consequence that what the Rhodesian courts have done is a
nullity, any injustice may well be short-lived. Section 40 (1) (b) of the
Matrimonial Causes Act, 1965, is available to wives after three years of
ordinary residence here. Moreover, if this court refuses to recognise a
Rhodesian decree of divorce, it will be for the government and Parliament to
consider what action, if any, is appropriate. [Reference was made to Attorney-General
v. Pontypridd Waterworks Co. [1908] 1 Ch. 388.] Recognition of foreign decrees of divorce The normal principle of recognition of foreign divorce decrees,
which includes decrees pronounced in dependent territories of the Crown, is
that if such decrees are made by competent courts exercising jurisdiction on
the basis of the parties real and substantial connection with that
foreign country, English courts will recognise them: Indyka v. Indyka [1969] 1 A.C. 33. There has been some doubt whether English courts have power to
deny recognition where either (1) the substance of the decree is in question,
i.e., where the decree of procedural steps taken to obtain the decree
contravene natural or substantial justice, or (2) where there has been a fraud
on the court. It is not altogether clear whether the court is bound to treat the
decree as invalid, or whether the court has a discretion to refuse recognition. In the absence of any contravention of natural justice or fraud an
English [*193]
court is
bound to recognise and give effect to foreign decrees, whatever the ground upon
which the divorce was granted. But (1) the decree must relate to matters within
the lawful control of the state under whose authority the court sits, i.e., there
must at least be international jurisdiction (Pemberton v. Hughes [1899] 1 Ch. 781) and
(2) the sovereign authority of the state must have conferred jurisdiction on
the court to grant the decree: Castrique v. Imrie (1870) L.R. 4 H.L.
414, 429, 448. In other words, the court must have both international and
municipal authority: see Papadopoulos v. Papadopoulos [1930] P. 55. Marriage and divorce are not strictly res, but both have been
treated as savouring of a res: per Lord Dunedin in Salvesen or Von Lorang v.
Administrator of Austrian Property [1927] A.C. 641, 662. The rules relating to
the recognition of judgments in rem therefore apply. Issue before the court The short point is whether the decree was the act of a court in
Rhodesia. The court must be a court invested with jurisdiction by the sovereign
authority, and the judge must be a validly appointed person to exercise the
jurisdiction of a competent court. To answer this question it is necessary to
examine the constitutional background of Rhodesia. Constitutional status of Rhodesia at U.D.I. Since 1923, Rhodesia has been a colony which the British
Government and the United Kingdom Parliament has had responsibility for and
jurisdiction over: see In re Southern Rhodesia [1919] A.C. 211; Madzimbamuto
v. Lardner-Burke [1969] 1 A.C. 645, 711. In 1961, the Southern Rhodesia (Constitution) Order in Council,
1961, gave the colony a constitution. That constitution was fully reviewed in Madzimbamutos case, except for
chapter V, which dealt with the judicature. That chapter was repealed and
replaced by the Constitution Amendment Act, 1964. Section 50 of that Act made
provision for a High Court of Southern Rhodesia; section 54 dealt with the
qualification of judges, and section 55 with their appointment: section 56A
dealt with the tenure of office of the judges; section 56B laid down a code
relating to their removal from office; section 56D provided that the law was
that in force in Cape Colony on June 10, 1891, as subsequently modified. Although extensive legislative powers were given to the colonial
legislature there were extremely important limits placed upon those powers. In
particular, there was no power to remove the governor or to withdraw the
executive power in the state from the Crown. Although under the 1961
Constitution the powers of the Queen in Council to legislate were limited, the
powers of the United Kingdom Parliament to legislate were in no way cut down.
The Statute of Westminster 1931 does not apply to Rhodesia. Constitutional events post-U.D.I. On November 11, 1965, Mr. Smith and his colleagues issued a
declaration of independence and a new constitution. Chapter VI of the new
constitution was identical to chapter V of the 1961 Constitution. On November 16, 1965, the Southern Rhodesia Act, 1965, was enacted
by the U.K. Parliament. [*194] The Southern Rhodesia (Constitution) Order, 1965, made under the
authority of that Act, modified and amended the 1961 Constitution but it
specifically preserved it. The effect of the Order of 1965 was to abolish the
governors council and the powers of the legislative assembly but
leaving the substantial part of the 1961 Constitution intact. In particular,
chapter V dealing with the judiciary remained untouched. Constitutionally there
was a constitution for the territory – the 1961 Constitution
– with a High Court, consisting of a General Division and an
Appellate Division, functioning under the authority of the Queen. There was,
however, no lawful ministerial system or legislative power in Rhodesia. The
1965 Constitution, introduced by a clearly illegal r使ime, had no legal force
whatsoever in English law or Rhodesian law. Section 2 of the Colonial Laws
Validity Act, 1865, makes the 1965 Constitution void as being repugnant to the
1961 Order. Until the decision in Madzimbamuto v. Lardner-Burke [1969] 1 A.C. 645,
the majority of the judges in Rhodesia considered that they were continuing to
sit under the 1961 Constitution. Macdonald J.A. stated that he was exercising
his powers under the 1965 Constitution, but Beadle C.J. considered that he was
sitting as a member of a de facto court, neither under the 1961 Constitution
nor the 1965 Constitution. The other seven judges regarded themselves as Her
Majestys judges sitting under the 1961 Constitution, but asking
themselves whether they could give effect to executive actions of rebel
ministers. So far as this court is concerned, the status of Rhodesia is not a
question of policy or of fact to be determined by a certificate. There is no
possibility for the British Government to recognise a
State of Rhodesia, since any such recognition would be
contrary to an Act of Parliament. Paragraph (a) of the Secretary of
States certificate merely restates what Parliament has declared to be
the law. Paragraphs (b) and (c) are legal, not policy, consequences of the law
stated in paragraph (a). There is thus no room for the concepts of
international law. If the word recognition in relation to
the rebel r使ime were used to connote no more than the forming of a view
whether or not persons exercising governmental power were also persons
authorised to do so by the 1961 Constitution, i.e., were properly in office,
there would be no harm. But that is not recognition in international law. Madzimbamutos case [1969] 1 A.C. 645 proceeded on the basis
(1) that the High Court of Rhodesia was at that time lawfully constituted; (2)
that the court had to apply Rhodesian law, which on constitutional matters
included English law, together with the Act of 1965 and the 1965 Order in
Council, (3) that the court was bound to apply the legislation of the United
Kingdom Parliament, which precluded the application of any doctrine of
necessity such as would give legal validity to the executive actions of a rebel
minister: see per Lord Reid [1969] 1 A.C. 645, 730, 731. Lord Pearce, at p.
732, dissented on the basis that there was an implied mandate that acts done by
those actually in control without lawful validity might be recognised if done
in the interests of the orderly running of the state, peace, order and good
government. Lord Reid, at p. 729, held that any such doctrine was overridden by
the Order in Council. As at the time of the Madzimbamuto decision, it was
impossible under English or Rhodesian law for any post-U.D.I.
law of the rebel r使ime to have any legal effect. The
Appellate Division of the High Court of [*195] Rhodesia was at that time still functioning
as a court constituted under the 1961 Constitution. By September 13, 1968, in Ndhlovu v. The Queen (1968) (4) S.A. 515,
the judges had, however, materially changed the position. The Appellate
Division held that the 1961 Constitution had been annulled by a change in the
factual situation in Rhodesia. The judges purported not to act disloyally to
the Queen, but they gave full effect to the 1965 Constitution and in reality
acknowledged, by implication if not expressly, their adherence to the 1965
Constitution and regarded themselves as a 1965 Constitution court. The status of the rebel r使ime The recognition of governments is a function exercisable only by
the Crown. Courts must defer to the Crown in this regard because court and
Sovereign may not speak with different voices: The Arantzazu Mendi [1939] A.C. 256. If
the court may not recognise a foreign government which the Crown refuses to
recognise, a fortiori it may not recognise a rebel r使ime within Her
Majestys dominions. It was suggested in Carl Zeiss Stiftung v. Rayner & Keeler
Ltd.
[1967] 1 A.C. 853 that some acts of an unrecognised government might be
recognised in an English court, but that possibility could not arise where an
Act of Parliament and an Order in Council state in unmistakable terms that Her
Majestys courts must deny validity to the constitution to which the
Rhodesian judges look for their authority, namely, the 1965 Constitution. And
quite apart from the relevant U.K. legislation all judicial authority is
against the recognition by a sovereign court of any act of a rebel r使ime within
the sovereigns dominions. General submission The so-called decree granted to the wife by Macaulay J. was not
the act of a court in Rhodesia. The judge, appointed under the 1965
Constitution, must have taken the oath under that instrument and hence could
not have been sitting under the only lawful constitution for the colonial
territory. Indeed, it would not matter which judge had pronounced the decree.
Even if Beadle C.J., who was lawfully appointed under the 1961 Constitution had
granted the decree it could not be recognised. There is no judge purporting to
sit under the only lawful constitution for Rhodesia. In the result, an English
court is precluded from recognising this divorce decree. Michael Havers Q.C. in reply. It is immaterial whether the
appointment of Macaulay J. was valid in English law since even if he were not a
judge de jure he was a judge de facto and therefore his judicial acts were
valid by the doctrine of necessity. That doctrine was expounded by Dixon J. in
the Australian Legal Journal, Res Judicata, Vol. 1 (1940), pp. 285-292. Louis Blom-Cooper Q.C. was invited by the court to make his
submissions on the de facto judge issue, first raised by
the wifes counsel in reply. The doctrine that the court may, in certain circumstances, accept
as valid the acts of a de facto officer has never been received into English
law. If it had been, Rex v. Cronin [1940] 1 All E.R. 618 would have been decided
differently. There, the appellant had been convicted at borough quarter
sessions before D., who purported to act as deputy recorder by virtue of [*196] an appointment under
the hand of the recorder. D., being a solicitor and not a barrister, was
ineligible to sit as a recorder, by virtue of section 166 (2) of the Municipal
Corporations Act 1882. If ever there were a case for the application of the
doctrine relied on by the wife, that was such a case. The Court of Criminal
Appeal held, however, that the proceedings were void ab initio and the
conviction was set aside. [Reference was made to Crane v. Director of Public
Prosecutions [1921] 2 A.C. 299.] Even if (contrary to the Attorney-Generals submission)
the doctrine of de facto officers does exist, it has fallen into desuetude.
Even if it be only obsolescent or the court has power to revive it, the
doctrine is wholly inapplicable in the instant case. First, for the doctrine to apply at all, the de facto
officers acts cannot be validated if the circumstances giving rise to
the legal defect are notorious: Rex v. Bedford Level Corporation (1805) 6 East 356,
368, 369. It is notorious (a) that the judges in Rhodesia have, since the Ndhlovu case (1968) (4) S.A.
515 at least, joined the rebellion and are no longer the judges lawfully
appointed under the 1961 Constitution, and (b) that whatever the position may
be regarding the judges appointed pre-UDI, Macaulay J. was appointed post-UDI
by Mr. Dupont, a rebel minister, under an unlawful constitution. Secondly, the de facto doctrine exists, if at all, as a matter of
public policy and of necessity to protect the rights of individuals from the
results of defects in governmental administration: see State of Connecticut
v. Carroll (1871) 38 Conn. 449. [Reference was made to Frazer v. Walker [1967] 1 A.C. 569.]
The doctrine of necessity cannot be applied to an act of rebellion, and, for
similar reasons, the de facto doctrine cannot be applied here. Thirdly, the doctrine cannot be applied, and (so far as the
Attorney-General has been able to ascertain) has never been applied, so as to
affect adversely the rights of the Sovereign. The validation of the judicial
acts performed during the Commonwealth was effected by statute; see the Act for
Confirmation of Judicial Proceedings 1660. The wording of that statute makes it
clear that it was not declaratory of the common law. If the common law doctrine
had extended to judicial acts affecting the sovereign, the Act of 1660 would
have been a piece of eccentric supererogation. Fourthly, it would be grotesque to apply the doctrine so as to
accord recognition to official acts of the judiciary during a rebellion but not
to recognise non-judicial official acts. The doctrine would apply, if at all,
to quasi-judicial as well as judicial acts. Fifthly, there can be no recognition by an English court of a
judicial act of a de facto judge in a colonial court in the face of what the
United Kingdom Parliament has laid down in the Southern Rhodesia Act 1965. Cur. adv. vult. July 31. SIR JOCELYN SIMON P. read the following judgment. The issue and its repercussions By her petition dated April 29, 1970, the wife petitions the court
under R.S.C., Ord. is. r. 16 and Ord. 112, r. 3 for a declaration that her
marriage [*197] to the respondent
husband was validly dissolved by a purported decree of divorce of the High
Court of Rhodesia dated April 9, 1970. The wife wishes to remarry in this country. But the
Registrar-General of Births, Deaths and Marriages, to whom the superintendent
registrar of marriages looks for advice, has in turn been advised that the
purported decree of divorce of April 9, 1970, would not be recognised by
English law as validly terminating the marriage, with the result that in the
eyes of English law the wife still remains married and cannot contract a fresh
union in England. Since she wished to dispute this view of the law, she
presented the petition to which I have referred. The wife is not the only person similarly situated. I have been
informed that since January 1, 1969, eight marriages have not been allowed to
proceed in this country where a purported prior divorce had been pronounced in
Rhodesia after November 11, 1965 (U.D.I.). Of these, two were pronounced before
September 13, 1968, by Greenfield J. (appointed after U.D.I.). In six cases the
decree was pronounced after September 13, 1968; five of them by Macaulay J. or
Greenfield J. (both appointed after U.D.I.), one by a judge appointed before
U.D.I.: Ndhlovu v. The Queen 1968 (4) S.A. 515. (The significance of this
break-down will become apparent as I review the arguments.) There may, of
course, be others who are uncertain of their status but who have not applied to
a superintendent registrar of marriages. The case therefore affects the personal lives of a number of
people besides the wife. It also raises grave constitutional issues. I should
have liked to have had more time for consideration of my judgment –
particularly as an extremely important and difficult point emerged at a very
late stage of the argument, so that it was not the subject of the extensive research
and close scrutiny which counsel would otherwise have devoted to it.
Nevertheless, we are now at the end of the term; and, having come to a
conclusion, I feel that it would not be fair to the wife to keep her waiting
for a judgment; and that it is better that I should deliver it now, with all
its imperfections. The parties then have a judicial decision on which they can
make plans or frame policy, or which they can, if so advised, test on appeal. The Attorney-Generals intervention By letter dated May 21, 1970, the wifes solicitors wrote
to the Queens Proctor, giving notice of these proceedings,
in case you, as amicus curiae, would wish to be represented by
counsel. They wrote a similar letter to the Attorney-General,
in case you wish to be represented by counsel. When the
case originally came before me on June 15, 1970, counsel appeared for the
Attorney-General and claimed a right of intervention on the ground that
constitutional issues arose in which the Sovereigns interests might
be affected. In my view the Attorney-General has a right of intervention in a
private suit whenever it may affect the prerogatives of the Crown, including
its relations with foreign states (see Duff Development Co. Ltd. v. Kelantan
Government [1924] A.C. 797, 802); and he certainly has in such circumstances
a locus standi at the invitation of the court (The Parlement Belge [*198] (1879) 4 P.D. 129,
130, 145, in which the Attorney-General appealed the instant decision, as
reported at (1880) 5 P.D. 197) or with the leave of the court (Engelke v.
Musmann
[1928] A.C, 433, 435-437). I think that the Attorney-General also has the right of
intervention at the invitation or with the permission of the court where the
suit raises any question of public policy on which the executive may have a
view which it may desire to bring to the notice of the court. Public policy is
a matter of which the courts take direct judicial cognisance, and they do not
allow evidence on the point (cf. Duff Development Co. Led. v. Kelantan
Government at p. 813 by Viscount Finlay, and at pp. 823-824 by Lord Sumner). Our state cannot speak with two voices ... the judiciary
saying one thing, the executive another said Lord Atkin in The
Arantzazu Mendi [1939] A.C. 256, 264. (Though Lord Atkin was speaking of
recognition of foreign sovereignty, his observation seems to me, in common
sense, to be of general application in a unitary state in cases such as the
instant one) of course, if clear law is expressly based on considerations of
public policy the executive must accept it and them unless and until the law is
changed by The Queen in Parliament. But where the law is doubtful or the
considerations of public policy may be in dispute, the view of the executive may
be of value to the courts – if only in indicating that this may be a
matter better left for the direct determination of the constitutional
sovereign, The Queen in Parliament. Several issues in the instant case turned
on considerations of public policy. Although in later stages of the instant case counsel for the
Attorney-General claimed to be doing no more than drawing relevant legal
considerations to the attention of the court, he intervened by wish as a party
rather than be heard as amicus curiae; and I was left clearly under the
impression that there were matters here, not merely affecting prerogative power
in the narrower legal sense, but extending to matters of policy, on which the
Crown wished to express a view. In saying this I must not be thought to be
criticising the Attorney-General or his counsel in any way. on the contrary: it
would be deplorable if, through the courts being left in ignorance,
the state did appear to be speaking with two voices. I think mat the Attorney-General was also entitled to intervene
with the leave of the court under section 44 of the Matrimonial Causes Act,
1965, though his counsel did not put his application or claim to intervene on
that ground. I would, in any event, have wished to hear argument on behalf of
the Crown. Counsel for the wife expressed the preference that the
Attorney-General should be an intervener, rather than merely address the court
as amicus curiae. There seemed to me to be manifest advantages in having the
Attorney-General a party, so that my judgment can, if so desired, be tested on
appeal in all events. I therefore readily allowed the intervention of the
Attorney-General, who is now a proper party to the suit. His counsel indicated
that he would not in any event be asking that his costs should be paid, and was
willing that this should be made a condition of his being allowed to intervene.
[*199] The personal background The wife was born and brought up in England. In 1965 she went to
what was then called Southern Rhodesia for a holiday, and stayed on, having
obtained work as a riding instructress at livery stables kept by the husband.
On December 29, 1965, she went through a ceremony of marriage with the husband
in Salisbury. No question has been raised in these proceedings as to the
validity of that marriage. From an affidavit sworn in the Rhodesian proceedings
it would appear that the husband had a domicile of origin in Australia, but
settled in Southern Rhodesia in 1949, and there acquired a domicile of choice.
In another affidavit in the Rhodesian proceedings the wife averred simply that
the husband was domiciled in Rhodesia. Neither of these averments was
controverted. On March 5, 1967, the only child of the marriage, a daughter,
Robin Mary, was born. By the end of 1968 the marriage was under strain, with
adverse consequences to the wifes health. In November, 1968, the wife
returned to this country on holiday. She was due to go back to Rhodesia in
January, 1969. Just before the time when she was due to leave she received
communications from the husband, asking her not to return and informing her
that he had found somebody else and did not want
to go on with the marriage. Nevertheless, in the hope of saving her
marriage, the wife did go back to Rhodesia about the middle of February 1969.
But she was unsuccessful; and eventually the husband bought her and the child
single air passages to London. The wife arrived in this country again on March
4, 1969, and she has been here ever since. She consulted solicitors in England,
who instructed agents in Salisbury. In consequence, on December 5, 1969, a writ
of summons issued against the husband on behalf of the wife claimed: (a) an
order calling upon [the husband] to restore conjugal rights to [the wife], and,
failing compliance therewith, (b) a decree of divorce; (c) custody of the
child; (d) maintenance for the child; (e) costs. The husband apparently put in
no defence and the wife was permitted to give her evidence by affidavit. On
February 12, 1970, the suit came before Goldin J. in the General Division of
the High Court of Rhodesia. Goldin J. had been appointed to the Bench before
November 11, 1965 (U.D.I.). Counsel appeared for the wife, the husband appeared
in person. The judge ordered: That a decree of restitution of
conjugal rights be and it is hereby granted to the [wife]. That [the husband]
return to or receive the [wife] on or before March 12, 1970, and, failing
compliance therewith, to shew cause to this honourable court sitting at Salisbury
on April 9, 1970:- Why a decree of divorce should not be granted, with costs
[etc.] The husband apparently failed to comply with the decree and order
of February 12, 1970, with the result that the matter came again before the
General Division of the High Court of Rhodesia on April 9, 1970. The judge this
time was Macaulay J., who had been appointed to the Bench on November 2, 1968,
in circumstances that I shall describe in a moment. The wife was again
represented by counsel, but this time the husband did not appear. Macaulay J.
ordered: That a decree of divorce be, [*200] and is hereby, granted, with
costs; and he made a custody and maintenance order in respect of the
child. I have been satisfied by expert evidence that the procedure that was
followed in the case complied with the law of Rhodesia as it existed before
November 11, 1965 (U.D.I.), and that, subject to the issue of the competence of
the court, what was granted on April 9, 1970, was a final decree dissolving the
marriage. On the assumption that her marriage had been validly dissolved,
the wife wished, as I have said, to remarry; but there followed the
difficulties that I have mentioned with the superintendent registrar of
marriages. The strain of the uncertainty of her position is affecting the wife
adversely, and through her the child. In the event of the non-recognition of the Rhodesian divorce
decree, with the resulting subsistence in the eyes of English law of her
marriage with the husband and her domicile in consequence remaining his, she
will not be able to institute divorce proceedings against him in England until
March 4, 1972: see Matrimonial Causes Act, 1965, s. 40 (1) (b). The constitutional background It was agreed that I could take as proved the constitutional history
of Rhodesia as it was explained in In re Southern. Rhodesia [1919] A.C. 211 and Madzimbamuto
v. Lardner-Burke [1969] 1 A.C. 645; and a number of other facts of a public nature
were stated as agreed evidence from the Bar, or proved by documents submitted
by consent. I need not go back beyond 1923, when the territory in question was
annexed by the Crown and given the status of a colony. Its system of law was
Roman-Dutch; but the nature of the sovereignty of The Queen in Parliament of
the United Kingdom over a British colony must be determined by the
constitutional law of the United Kingdom: Madzimbamutos case at at p. 721. In 1961, the territory received a constitution by the Southern
Rhodesia (Constitution) Order in Council 1961. Save for chapter V, dealing with
the judicature, it was extensively reviewed in Madzimbamutos case. I need only
remark that chapter I deals with the office of Governor, section 1 (1) reading: There shall be a Governor in and
over the Colony of Southern Rhodesia who shall be appointed by Her Majesty by
commission under her sign manual and signet and shall hold office during Her
Majestys pleasure: and part of section 2 reading: ... the Governor shall do and
execute all things that belong to his office according to such instructions, if
any, as Her Majesty may from time to time see fit to give him. Chapter II deals with the legislature, section 6 providing that it
shall consist of Her Majesty and a legislative assembly.
Chapter IV deals with executive powers, section 42 providing that: The executive authority of Southern Rhodesia is vested
in Her Majesty and may be exercised on Her Majestys behalf by the [*201] Governor or such
other persons as may be authorised in that behalf by the Governor or by any law
of the legislature. Chapter V, dealing with the judicature, was validly repealed and
replaced by the Constitution Amendment Act, 1964, of Southern Rhodesia, which
was rendered necessary by the break-up of the Central African Federation.
Section 50 provides that there shall be a High Court of Southern Rhodesia,
consisting of the Appellate Division and the General Division. Section 54 deals
with the qualification of judges. Subsection (3) reads: A judge of the High Court shall not
enter upon the duties of his office unless he has taken before the Governor or
some person authorised by the Governor in that behalf, the oath of allegiance
and the judicial oath in the forms set out in the First Schedule. The oath of allegiance is to ... Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth the
Second, her Heirs, and successors according to law. The judicial oath reads: I.......... do swear that I will
well and truly serve our Sovereign Lady Queen Elizabeth the Second in the
office of..........., and will do right to all manner of people after the laws
and usages of Southern Rhodesia, without fear or favour, affection or illwill.
... Section 55 deals with the appointment of judges. Subsection (5)
reads: The puisne judges shall be persons
qualified for appointment under the provisions of subsection (1) of section 54
and shall be appointed by the Governor, on the advice of the Prime Minister and
with the agreement of the Chief Justice, by instrument under the public
seal. Section 56A deals with the tenure of office of the judges, and
allows for the retirement or resignation of a judge, and enacts that the office
of a judge of the High Court shall not, without his consent, be abolished during
his tenure of office. Section 56B provides a strict code governing the removal
of judges. Section 56D provides, so far as this case is concerned, that the law
to be administered should be Roman-Dutch law as modified by subsequent
legislation having in Southern Rhodesia the force of law. I shall refer to the
1961 Constitution as amended in 1964 as the 1961/64
Constitution. On November 11, 1965, the Prime Minister of Southern Rhodesia and
his colleagues issued a Declaration of Independence (which
I have called and purpose hereafter to call U.D.I.)
purporting to declare that Southern Rhodesia was no longer a crown colony. On
the same day, in a message to the people of Rhodesia, the Governor informed
them that the Declaration of Independence was unconstitutional and that the
Prime Minister and his colleagues had ceased to hold office. This message
called upon the people to refrain from illegal acts furthering the objects of
the illegal r使ime, and proceeded as follows: It is the duty of all citizens to maintain law and order
in the country and to carry on with their normal tasks. This applies equally to
the judiciary, the armed services, the police and the public service.
[*202] On November 16, 1965, the United Kingdom Parliament passed the
Southern Rhodesia Act, 1965, which declared that Southern Rhodesia continued to
be part of Her Majestys dominions and that the Government
and Parliament of the United Kingdom have responsibility and jurisdiction as
heretofore for and in respect of it. The Act provided that Her
Majesty might make such provision ... as appears to her to be
necessary or expedient ... by Order in Council. on November 18, 1965,
the Southern Rhodesia Constitution Order 1965 (which I shall refer to as
the 1965 Order in Council) was made in pursuance of that
Act. Section 2 (1) reads: It is hereby declared for the
avoidance of doubt that any instrument made or other act done in purported
promulgation of any constitution for Southern Rhodesia except as authorised by
Act of Parliament is void and of no effect. Section 4 (1) (e) reads: ... a Secretary of State may
exercise any function that is vested by the constitution or any other law in
force in Southern Rhodesia in any officer or authority of the Government of
Southern Rhodesia (not being a court of law) or (whether or not he exercises
that function himself) prohibit or restrict the exercise of that function by
that officer or authority. Section 6 reads: It is hereby declared for the
avoidance of doubt that any law made, business transacted, step taken or
function exercised in contravention of any prohibition or restriction imposed
by or under this order is void and of no effect. Nevertheless, the Prime Minister of Southern Rhodesia and his
colleagues disregarded their dismissal from office; and the members of the
legislative assembly disregarded its suspension and purported to adopt a new
constitution (which I shall refer to as the 1965
Constitution). It made no provision for a Governor; but chapter II
provided for an officer administering the government in and over
Rhodesia. Chapter VI deals with the judicature; and is in much the same
terms as chapter V of the 1961/64 Constitution, with, so far as this case is
concerned, two important distinctions. First, section 58 (3) provides: A judge of the High Court shall not enter upon the
duties of his office unless he has taken before the officer administering the
government or some person authorised by the officer administering the
government in that behalf, the oath of loyalty and the judicial oath in the
forms set out in the first schedule. The oath of loyalty reads: I,........... do swear that I will,
in accordance with the Constitution of Rhodesia, 1965, be faithful and bear
true allegiance to Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth, Queen of Rhodesia, Her Heirs
and Successors, and that I will be loyal to Rhodesia. ... The judicial oath reads: [*203] I,.......... do swear that I will,
in accordance with the Constitution of Rhodesia, 1965, well and truly serve our
Sovereign Lady Queen Elizabeth, Queen of Rhodesia, in the office of..........
and that I will respect and uphold the aforesaid constitution....... Secondly, section 65 abolishes appeals from Rhodesia to the Privy
Council. Section 128 deals with The High Court and the judges
thereof. By subsection (1): The High Court of Southern Rhodesia in existence
immediately prior to the appointed day shall be deemed to have been duly
constituted as the High Court of Rhodesia under this constitution. By subsection (2) Every person who immediately prior
to the appointed day holds the office of judge of the High Court shall, subject
to subsections (3) and (4), continue to hold the like office as if he had been
appointed thereto under the corresponding provisions of this
constitution. By subsection (3) the existing judges are, subject to the provisions
of subsection (4), deemed to have complied with the requirements of the
constitution relating to the taking of oaths on appointment to such office. By
subsection (4), however, an existing judge might be required to state forthwith
whether he accepts the 1965 Constitution and to take the oath of loyalty and
the judicial oath under it, failing which his office should be deemed to have
become vacant. On July 23, 1968, the Privy Council, having heard extensive
argument over eight days, gave their advice in Madzimbamutos case. They held that
the Southern Rhodesia Act, 1965, and the 1965 Order in Council were of full
legal effect in Southern Rhodesia; and that accordingly the 1965 Constitution,
which purported to provide for an officer administering the
government in and over Rhodesia, was void and of no effect by virtue
of section 2 (1) of the 1965 Order in Council. Their Lordships assumed that the
Appellate Division, in the judgment appealed from, considered itself as a court
sitting under the 1961/64 Constitution; but the Appellate Division
subsequently, in Ndhlovu v. The Queen, made it clear that this assumption was
incorrect. I am not strictly bound to follow the decision of the Privy Council,
but I have no hesitation in doing so. On September 13, 1968, the Appellate Division of the High Court of
Rhodesia gave judgment in Ndhlovu v. The Queen. I have been provided
with a copy of the judgment as printed at the request of the court and I refer
to its pagination. Beadle C.J. held at pp. 26-27: It is no longer possible for a judge
to carry on as a judge serving under the 1961 Constitution. ... This being so,
there is no escape from the view that the 1961 Constitution has now been
annulled by the efficacy of change, and from this it follows that the courts
must now take cognisance of the fact that the present government is the only
lawful Government of Rhodesia and that the 1965 Constitution is the only lawful
constitution. ... If, therefore, the judges of the High Court decide to carry
on, they cannot carry on as a 1961 Constitution court, and if they cannot carry
on as a court serving under [*204] a de facto government, the only other capacity in which
they can carry on is as a court serving under a de jure government. In the
circumstances, if the judges carry on at all they can only do so by taking
cognisance of the fact that the present government is the lawful government and
the 1965 Constitution the only lawful constitution. This line of argument also appears by the Chief Justices
conclusions 2, 4, 9, 10 and 15 (pp. 27 to 29). Quenet J.P. summarised his
judgment at p. 36, as follows: ... The present government has
achieved internal de jure status. ... It follows that while the judges of this
court exercise the judicial function they must give effect to the laws and the
constitution of the present government. Macdonald J.A. concluded his judgment, at p. 50: ... I am satisfied that the present
government of Rhodesia has become the only legal government of this country and
the 1965 Constitution the only legal constitution. It was in consequence of that case that the Registrar-General
indicated that he would advise a superintendent registrar that a divorce decree
granted after September 13, 1968, whether or not granted by a judge appointed
before U.D.I., would not be recognised as a valid judgment of a lawful court;
and the principal probate registry ceased thereafter to reseal Rhodesian grants
of representation: see Practice Direction (Rhodesian Grants: Resealing) [1970]
1 W.L.R. 687. The direction of the senior probate registrar (for which I take
administrative responsibility) and the advice given by the Registrar-General
(itself based on advice given to him) do not, of course, in any way bind this
court. In the Rhodesia Government Gazette dated November 2, 1968, it was
notified that, in terms of subsection (5) of
section 59 of the Constitution of Rhodesia, 1965, His Excellency the Officer
Administering the Government has appointed Mr. Advocate John Burman Macaulay
Q.C. as a puisne judge of the High Court of Rhodesia. (The appointment of Greenfield J. to the Bench had apparently been
similarly gazetted on May 1, 1968.) It is common ground that both took oaths in
terms of the 1965 Constitution. In 1969 there was purported to be enacted by His
Excellency the Officer Administering the Government, as representative of The
Queens Most Excellent Majesty, by and with the advice and consent of
the Parliament of Rhodesia a new, republican constitution (which I
shall call the 1969 Constitution). Chapter IV, dealing with
the judicature, was in largely similar terms to those of chapter VI of the 1965
Constitution. The oaths, however, had to be taken before the president, and
were in the form appropriate to a republic, omitting all mention of Her
Majesty. There does not seem to be any equivalent of section 128 of the 1965
Constitution. On March 2, 1970, Mr. Stewart, then Her Majestys
Secretary of State [*205] for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs, stated in the United
Kingdom Parliament, in relation to affairs in Rhodesia (Hansard, col. 13), as
follows: ... in a number of cases members of
the public services, including the courts, have joined the rebellion. In other
cases members of the public services still believe that they could continue to
function as they did before i.d.i. [i.e., U.D.I.]. But this is not so and can
no longer be seen in this light. The former governors injunction has
lapsed and those who continue to serve a r使ime which asserts illegally that
Southern Rhodesia is a republic – like those appointed by the r使ime
– cannot be regarded as serving the Crown in Southern Rhodesia. This
change in their status must, in our view, have consequences for the functions
they perform and for the validity of acts done in the performance of those
functions; the effects of these matters on individuals will, however, fall to
be considered by the courts in this country. On July 21, 1970, Sir Alec Douglas-Home, who had succeeded Mr.
Stewart as Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs, certified
to the petitioners solicitors for the purpose of this suit as
follows: In response to the request received on July 9, 1970,
from Messrs. Leathes Prior and Son for a certificate for use by their client in
these proceedings in respect of the following questionnaire, that is to say: Did Her Majestys Government
recognise Mr. Smiths r使ime in Rhodesia as the de facto government as
at: (i) June 15, 1970. (ii) April 9, 1970. (iii) February 12, 1970? I, Alexander Frederick Douglas-Home,
Her Majestys Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs,
hereby certify as follows: (a) Southern Rhodesia has since 1923
been, and continues to be, a colony within Her Majestys dominions,
and the Government and Parliament of the United Kingdom have responsibility for
and jurisdiction over it as and to the extent provided in section 1 of the
Southern Rhodesia Act, 1965; (b) Her Majestys
Government in the United Kingdom do not recognise, and have not at any time
recognised, Southern Rhodesia (or Rhodesia) as a state either de facto or de
jure; (c) Her Majestys
Government in the United Kingdom do not recognise, and have not at any time
since November 11, 1965, recognised, any persons purporting to be officer
Administering the Government, President or Ministers of Southern Rhodesia (or
Rhodesia) as constituting a Government in Southern Rhodesia either de facto or
de jure. [Signed] Alec Douglas-Home. A certificate from Her Majestys Secretary of State has
not the same significance where the courts are concerned with questions [*206] of usurpation of
sovereignty as it has where the courts are concerned with relations with
foreign states: see Madzimbamutos case [1969] 1 A.C.
645, 723-724. But it is helpful in obviating the need for the court to embark
on the generally impracticable task of determining on extrinsic evidence how
far a r使ime is in effective control of any given territory (see Madzimbamutos case at p. 724B-C;
and cf. Duff Development Co. Led. v. Kelantan Government [1924] A.C. 797, 841
by Viscount Finlay) and in indicating how far Her Majestys Government
are still seeking to regain control of affairs in Rhodesia by ousting the
usurping power: see Madzimbamutos case at p. 725E. In
my view, the certificate makes it impossible for this court to adopt the view
of the Appellate Division in Ndhlovu v. The Queen that the present
r使ime in Rhodesia is the government de jure, and that the 1965 (or, perhaps,
now the 1969) Constitution is the only valid constitution. It is also of
assistance in determining some of the issues in this case so far as they depend
on questions of public policy or presumed intention of the Sovereign. The principal arguments It was argued on behalf of the Attorney-General as follows: (1) For a divorce decree purporting to be pronounced by a court abroad
to be recognised by an English court as valid to terminate a marriage, the
court pronouncing the decree must be competent to do so in the eyes of English
law both according to the rules of English private international law and
according to the municipal law of the country in question. (2) An English court will not recognise any judgment or order of
any court in Rhodesia since Ndhlovus case, since all courts now
functioning in Rhodesia purport to be exercising jurisdiction under a
constitution which has no legality in the eyes of English law. There is
therefore now no court functioning in Rhodesia which has municipal competence
to dissolve a marriage. (3) Alternatively, an English court will not recognise any
judgment or order of any judge not validly appointed under the only Rhodesian
constitution recognised by English law, i.e., that of 1961-64: Macaulay J. is
such a judge, as is also Greenfield J.: neither has therefore municipal
competence to dissolve a marriage. It was also at one time argued on behalf of the Attorney-General
that the decree of Macaulay J. of April 9, 1970, was invalid by reason of
section 6 of the 1965 Order in Council; but this point was ultimately
abandoned. It was argued for the wife as follows: (1) (a) The effective step in the Rhodesian divorce proceedings
was the decree of restitution of conjugal rights of February 12, 1970,
everything thereafter being routine. (b) Goldin J., a pre-U.D.I.-appointed
judge, pronounced that decree of restitution of conjugal rights. (c) His
judgments are therefore entitled to recognition (i.e., controverting the second
argument on behalf of the Attorney-General). (2) Even if the decree of Macaulay J. of April 9, 1970, was not
pronounced by a judge validly appointed under the only constitution [*207] recognised by English
law (as was accepted), nevertheless the ostensible change in the
wifes status effected thereby should be recognised as legally valid
under the so-called doctrine of necessity. (3) Alternatively, Macaulay J., though not a judge de jure, was a
judge de facto; and as such his judgments and orders are entitled to
recognition. (This was the point which emerged at a late stage of the
argument.) (4) The Secretary of State, by failing to exercise his powers under
section (4) (1) (e) of the 1965 Order in Council to prohibit the appointment of
Macaulay J., or to appoint any judge in his place, or to prohibit or restrict
the exercise of his functions, must be taken to have impliedly approved on
behalf of the Crown the exercise by Macaulay J. of his judicial function. Counsel for the Attorney-General controverted these arguments. General principles of recognition For a judgment to be recognised by the courts of this country, it
must be pronounced by a court competent to pronounce it according to our rules
of private international law. The Rhodesian courts satisfied this test; either
because, as the petitioner swore in her affidavit, the husband was domiciled in
Rhodesia (Le Mesurier v. Le Mesurier [1895] A.C. 517, in so far as not disapproved
in Indyka v. Indyka [1969] 1 A.C. 33); or because, as stated in the petition
in the instant case, the Rhodesian court took jurisdiction on the basis that
the wife had been deserted by the husband and that the husband was immediately
before the said desertion domiciled in Rhodesia (see Matrimonial Causes Act,
1965, s. 40 (1) (a) (i); Travers v. Holley [1953] P. 246; Indyka v. Indyka [1969] 1 A.C. 33; or
because the parties had a close and substantial connection with Rhodesia (Indyka
v. Indyka). But the court whose decree is in question must also be competent
to pronounce it by its municipal law. An issue as to this infrequently arises;
though Papadopoulos v. Papadopoulos [1930] P. 55 is an example. Generally the
matter is disposed of by calling an expert witness who, on examination of the
decree, testifies that it would be accepted as evidence of a valid judgment by
the courts of the country in question. In the present case this is the crucial question. Should the
Rhodesian decree be accepted by the courts of Rhodesia as validly dissolving
the marriage by their municipal law ? In answering this question, the courts of
Rhodesia must be taken to be correctly applying the law as laid down by The
Queen in Parliament in the United Kingdom, in particular the 1961/64
Constitution and the 1965 Order in Council. Which decree? It was argued for the wife that the effective decree was the
decree of restitution of conjugal rights pronounced by Goldin J. On February
12, 1970, and that everything thereafter was mere routine. This seems to me to
be an impossible argument – contradicted indeed by the petition and
by the expert evidence called on behalf of the wife. Unless an effective decree
of divorce was pronounced, the wife continued to be married to [*208] the husband. The only
decree purporting to dissolve the marriage was that pronounced by Macaulay J.
on April 9, 1970. The de jure status of Macaulay J. Madzimbamutos case established that the only lawful
constitution of Rhodesia was that of 1961/64. The inferences that I draw from
the certificate of the Secretary of State (reinforced by the statement in
Parliament of his predecessor) preclude me, in my view, from a factual
investigation, such as was undertaken by the Appellate Division of the High
Court of Rhodesia in Ndhlovus case, which led them to the conclusion
that the usurping r使ime was a government de jure and the 1965 Constitution the
valid constitution of the land. In any case, I have no material for any such
investigation. Indeed, it was accepted on behalf of the wife that the 1961/64
Constitution was the only legally valid constitution of Rhodesia. In the absence of any evidence to the contrary, I have no
hesitation in assuming that Macaulay J. was personally qualified under section
54 of the 1961/64 Constitution. But he failed to comply with section 55 (5),
because he was not appointed by the Governor, or with section 54 (3), because
he did not take before the Governor, or some person authorised by the Governor
in that behalf, the oath of allegiance and the judicial oath in the form set
out in the first schedule. It is an agreed fact that Macaulay J. and Greenfield
J. were appointed under, and took oaths in terms of, the 1965 Constitution. Nor can I accept the argument that the Secretary of State, by
omitting to exercise his power under section 4 (1) (e) of the 1965 Order in
Council to prohibit or restrain the ostensible appointment of Macaulay J., or
himself to appoint a judge to what was presumably a vacancy on the Bench,
implicitly approved the ostensible appointment of Macaulay J. That section of
the 1965 Order in Council is permissive in character; and, moreover, it is
expressly stated to be without prejudice to any other provision of
this order. Section 2 (1) declared void and of no effect
any instrument made or other act done in purported promulgation of
any constitution for Southern Rhodesia except as authorised by Act of
Parliament. The effect of that was to invalidate the 1965 Constitution:
see Madzimbamutos case. This seems to me to leave no room for
any implied authorisation by the Secretary of State to Macaulay J. to assume
office ostensibly under the 1965 Constitution, even if that were not repugnant
to common sense in view of the certificate of the Secretary of State and the
statement in Parliament of his predecessor. I am therefore compelled to hold that Macaulay J. is not a judge
de jure of the High Court of Rhodesia. The so-called doctrine of necessity This doctrine was exhaustively canvassed in the arguments, and
discussed in the judgments, in Madzimbamutos case; and it formed
the basis of Lord Pearces dissent. Both majority and minority quoted
from Grotius, De Jure Belli ac Pacis, Bk. I, Ch. 4, Sect. XV (quoted from the
translation of J. Barbeyrac, 1st ed. (1738), p. 121): [*209] We have treated of him who has now,
or has had, the right to govern: it now remains that we say something of him
who usurps the government; not after he has by long possession, or agreement
obtained a right to it, but so long as the cause of his unjust possession
continues. The acts of sovereignty exercised by such a usurper may have an
obligatory force, not by virtue of his right (for he has none), but because it
is very probable that the lawful sovereign, whether it be the people
themselves, or a king, or a senate, chooses rather that the usurper should be
obeyed during that time, than that the exercise of the laws and justice should
be interrupted, and the state thereby exposed to all the disorders of
anarchy. (See also the translation quoted by Lord Pearce, at p. 735.) Lord Pearce, at p. 737, referred the doctrine to: ... the reasonable and humane desire
of preserving law and order and avoiding chaos which would work great hardship
on the citizens of all races and which would incidentally damage that part of
the realm to the detriment of whoever is ultimately successful. ... For this
reason it is clearly desirable to keep the courts out of the main area of
dispute, so that, whatever be the political battle, and whatever be the
sanctions or other pressures employed to end the rebellion, the courts can
carry on their peaceful tasks of protecting the fabric of society and
maintaining law and order. There were a number of decisions in the United States after the
American Civil War which applied the doctrine to legal transactions and
forensic acts which took place in the confederate states during their
rebellion. I need only cite one passage from one authority – Horn
v. Lockhart (1873) 17 Wallace 570, 580 (84 U.S.) – which was quoted
in Madzimbamutos case [1969] A.C. 645, 727-728: We admit that the acts of the
several states in their individual capacities, and of their different
departments of government, executive, judicial, and legislative, during the
war, so far as they did not impair or tend to impair the supremacy of the
national authority, or the just rights of citizens under the constitution, are,
in general, to be treated as valid and binding. The existence of a state of
insurrection and war did not loosen the bonds of society, or do away with civil
government, or the regular administration of the laws. Order was to be
preserved, police regulations maintained, crime prosecuted, property protected,
contracts enforced, marriages celebrated, estates settled, and the transfer and
descent of property regulated precisely as in time of peace. No one that we are
aware of seriously questions the validity of judicial or legislative acts in
the insurrectionary states touching these and kindred subjects, where they were
not hostile in their purpose or mode of enforcement to the authority of the
national government, and did not impair the rights of citizens under the
constitution. I would draw attention in this quotation to the equating of the
executive, judicial and legislative acts. Also to mode of
enforcement; since [*210] judicial orders, even in the most private sphere, may
result in the use of coercive power by executive officers. Lord Pearces opinion is a powerful judgment; and if it
had prevailed, the instant case would be a fortiori. But the majority of the
Board did not agree with it. It is true that, in the view of the majority, the
clinching argument was that no general principle depending upon
necessity, or an implied mandate from the lawful Sovereign
which recognised the need to preserve law and order within the territory
controlled by a usurper, could override the legal right of the Parliament of
the United Kingdom to make laws for such a territory; and that no purported law
made by any person or body in Southern Rhodesia, no matter how necessary such
law might be for preserving law and order, or otherwise, could have any legal
effect whatsoever (see p. 729). The foregoing reasons would have been enough to dispose of the
argument based on the doctrine of necessity so far as the
majority of the board in Madzimbamutos case was concerned.
But their opinion nevertheless also contained the following passage (p. 728),
which would hardly have been included if their Lordships had not considered
that the matters referred to were relevant to the applicability in the
Rhodesian situation of the doctrine of necessity and of the
cases decided in the United States after the Civil War. In the first place there was divided
sovereignty in the United States, the United States only being sovereign within
defined limits. ... Secondly, the decisions were concerned with the legal
effect, as regards the civil claims of individuals, after the civil war, of
acts done during it. None of them were cases of courts called upon, during the
rebellion, to pass upon the legality of the governments of the rebellious
states. ... And thirdly the Congress of the United States did not, and perhaps
under the constitution could not, make laws similar to the Southern Rhodesia
Act, and order in Council of 1965, providing what the legal position was to be
in the seceding states during the war. ... I would draw particular attention to the second consideration
referred to. It did not commend itself to Lord Pearce (which reinforces the
significance of its inclusion in the majority opinion); though Lord Pearce did
acknowledge that when one comes to assess the question of public
policy ... there is a wide difference between the retrospective and
contemporaneous (see p. 733A-D). But public policy is the very essence of the doctrine, whether one
calls it necessity or implied mandate
or anything else. All that I have been told of the political and legislative
history of the U.D.I. affair, coupled with the scope of the argument for the
Attorney-General in the instant case, suggests to me that I am concerned with, so
to speak, a legal blockade as a counterpart of the economic blockade. The
essence of the blockade of a usurping r使ime is to cause it to capitulate by
bringing pressure on citizens within the territory of usurpation. Innocent
private individuals, even children, may be caused undeserved hardship in the
process. If this is a just parallel, there does indeed seem to be all the [*211] difference between
according legal recognition during the usurpation to executive, judicial or
legislative acts of the usurping r使ime and doing so after capitulation; just
as there is all the difference between allowing blockade-running during a
rebellion and lifting the blockade after the capitulation. Courts of law have
no means of judging the necessity or desirability of any type of ostracism or
pressure in such cases, or of knowing the repercussions of any measure of
relaxation. Finally, I think that both the majority of their Lordships and
Lord Pearce found the most satisfactory basis of the doctrine in an implied
mandate from the lawful sovereign, since this does not involve denying his
legal right to govern or admit in any way the lawfulness of the usurpation. As
the majority put it, at p. 729: It may be that there is a general
principle, depending on implied mandate from the lawful sovereign, which
recognises the need to preserve law and order in territory controlled by a
usurper. As to this, I would venture to make two observations. First, that
this is a fiction. Fictions are desirable, perhaps, when they are the only
means of abating the rigour of the law; and more necessary, perhaps, where
legislative powers are constrained by a paramount written constitution. But
they are less necessary when sovereign parliaments are in continuous session
and able to express their wishes legislatively (particularly when legislation
can be enacted by order in Council). Secondly, as I have indicated, much that I
have heard makes me feel that the implication of a mandate might well be
contradicting the real intention of the lawful sovereign. The doctrine of necessity is intimately
connected with concepts of public policy, a sphere in which courts of law are
rightly chary of intrusion. Where one has a sovereign legislature continuously
in session, it seems to me in every way preferable to leave it to The Queen in
Parliament to decide how far recognition should be accorded to executive,
judicial or legislative acts of organs of government which are non de jure. I do not think that the doctrine of necessity
entitles me to accord recognition to the judicial acts of Macaulay J. Validity of acts of a de facto judge There seems to have been no recent example of the application of
any such doctrine in English law. Indeed, counsel for the Attorney-General denied
its existence. But, having had an opportunity, however cursory, of examining
the authorities (which counsel for the Attorney-General did not have), I am
satisfied that the concept is part of English law. The authorities are set out
in two masterly judgments of great learning in respectively the Supreme Court
of Connecticut (State v. Carroll (1871) 38 Conn. 449; 9 Am. 409) and the Court
of Appeal of New Zealand (In re Aldridge (1897) 15 N.Z.L.R. 361); and the
doctrine is also discussed in an article entitled De Facto
Officers by Dixon J. (later Chief Justice of Australia) in the
publication Res Judicata (Melbourne, 1940), Vol. 1, pp. 285-292. I think,
though, that counsel for the Attorney-General was justified in claiming that
the doctrine is inconsistent with the decision of [*212] the Court of Criminal
Appeal in Rex v. Cronin [1940] 1 All E.R. 618. But the point was not drawn to the
attention of the court, the decision of which is in any event not binding on
me. (Dixon J., in his article, also mentioned at least one Australian case
where the doctrine was not invoked, though it might have been decisive.) But it
is of the essence of the common law that its rules, even though fallen into
disuse, may be revived if circumstances develop in which they may prove to be
again. Of value: see Mirehouse v. Rennell (1833) Cl. & F. 527, 546 by Parke
B., Bowman v. Secular Society Ltd. [1917] A.C. 406, 454 by Lord Sumner; and cf.
the recent revival of the offence of affray. I can certainly conceive of
circumstances where the doctrine of the validity of the acts of officers
(including judicial officers) de facto sed non de jure would be useful. The de facto doctrine was introduced
into the law as a matter of policy and necessity, to protect the interests of
the public and individuals, where those interests were involved in the official
acts of persons exercising the duties of that office without being lawful
officers (State v. Carroll, 9 Am. 409, 432 by Butler C.J.). What I have said about public policy in relation to the doctrine
of necessity is therefore again relevant here. A useful illustration of the doctrine in English law appears from Rex.
v. Bedford Level Corporation (1805) 6 East 356. The question was whether
the acts of a deputy registrar who continued to act after the death of his
principal were valid as those of an officer de facto sed non de jure. Lord
Ellenborough C.J., giving the opinion of the court, said, at pp. 368-369: An officer de facto is one who has
the reputation of being the officer he assumes to be, and yet is not a good
officer in point of law. The court held that the acts of the deputy registrar were good
until the death of the principal was known, but not afterwards. That case
shows, in my view, that the doctrine has no place where the circumstances
giving rise to the legal defect are notorious. It is plain from the cases cited in State v. Carroll and In re Aldridge,
as well as those cases themselves, that the doctrine extends to acts of a
judicial officer. Indeed, In re Aldridge was concerned with the acts of a
purported judge of the Supreme Court of New Zealand, sitting in criminal
jurisdiction. But, with one possible exception, I cannot find that the doctrine
has ever been applied to the prejudice of any right of a sovereign. On the
contrary, in Harris v. Jays (1599) Cro.Eliz. 699, the inscription of a
copy-hold by an invalidly appointed steward of a manor, who would otherwise
have been considered to have been a steward de facto (see Knowles v. Luce (1580) Moo.K.B. 109; Parker
v. Kett
(1701) 1 Ld.Raym. 658) was not effective because the manor had escheated to the
Crown. This new grant is in prejudice to the Queen, who is lady of
the manor, said Gawdy J. (This could, of course, either have been
because the Queen had the right of appointment of the steward or because part
of her property was alienated.) [*213] The possible exception arises out of the Statute 1 Edw. 4, c. 1,
which dealt with various judicial acts, recoveries and forensic processes in
the times of Henry IV, Henry V and Henry VI, described in the statute as
late kings ... in deed and not of right (de facto sed non
de jure). The Act confirmed generally (though with exceptions) the judicial
acts of those kings and of judges appointed by those kings and judicial or
forensic processes appendant thereto. Richmond J. in Aldridges case (1897) 15
N.Z.L.R. 361, 369 said: This Act is declaratory, and is
expressed to be, to eschew (eschuer) – i.e. avoid – doubts
which might arise; and, accordingly, in Bagots case it was treated by
both parties and the court as merely affirming the common law ... see the case
abridged by Brooke [Abridgement, Patentes, 21]. In the course of the
discussion, it was laid down by Billing J. that the judicial acts of a king de
facto are good. The case [was] cited as establishing that doctrine by Bacon,
arguendo, in Harris v. Jays (1599) Cro.Eliz. 699. But I cannot myself read the Statute 1 Edw. 4, c. 1, as giving any
indication that it was declaratory of the common law: the doubts that might
arise were by reason that certain judicial acts were declared valid and others
not. The reports of Bagots case, whether in the Year Book 9 Ed. IV 2
or in Brookes Abridgement, and of Harris v. Jays do not make it clear
what exactly was considered to be the common law element in the matter. If it
were correct that at common law the judicial acts of a usurping king, or of a
judge appointed by him, are good as those of an officer de facto, the Act for
Confirmation of Judicial Proceedings, 1660 (12 Car. 2, c. 12), which runs
strictly parallel to the Statute 1 Edw. 4, c. 1, would have been unnecessary,
or at least should have been in declaratory form, which it was not. In so far
as a matter is dealt with by legislation. it at any rate tends to suggest that
there is no common law rule which deals with the situation in a similar way. In
the Statute 1 Edw. 4, c. 1, the kings were expressly declared to be kings de
facto, which might allow for the proposition that it was in the circumstances a
particular statutory extension of a general common law rule as to the efficacy
of acts of a de facto officer. Moreover, such a limititation on the doctrine
– that it has no application where the appointment to the office is
in derogation of the rights of the sovereign – has, in my view, its
counterpart in the rule laid down by the Supreme Court of the United States in Norton
v. Shelby County (1886) 118 U.S. 425 that the doctrine has no application when the
statute establishing the office is ultra vires. In any case, I do not think that the instant case comes within the
definition of the doctrine even so widely stated as it was by Butler C.J. in State
v. Carroll (1871) 9 Am. 409, 427; this was as follows: An officer de facto is one whose
acts, though not those of a lawful officer, the law, upon principles of policy
and justice, will hold valid so far as they involve the interests of the public
and third persons, where the duties of the office were exercised: First, without a known appointment
..., but under such circumstances of reputation or acquiescence as were
calculated to induce [*214] people, without inquiry, to submit to or invoke his action,
supposing him to be the officer he assumed to be. But the appointment of Macaulay J. was a known one and the
circumstances which rendered it invalid in the eye of English law must have
been notorious. Second, under color of a known and
valid appointment ... but where the officer has failed to conform to some
precedent requirement or condition, as to take an oath, ... But here the appointment was invalid. Third, under color of a known ...
appointment, void, because ... there was want of power in the ... appointing
body, or by reason of some defect or irregularity in its exercise, such ...
want of power, or defect being unknown to the public. But here the want of power in the appointing body and the defect
and irregularity of its purported manner of appointment were known to the
public. Fourth, under color of an ...
appointment by or pursuant to a public unconstitutional law, before the same is
adjudged to be such. This fourth head is primarily referable to conditions in the United
States, where there is a paramount constitution, under which legislative acts
can be invalidated; it is difficult to reconcile with Norton v. Shelby
County
(1886) 118 U.S. 425; and, in any event, before the purported appointment of
Macaulay J. under the 1965 Constitution, that constitution had been declared
invalid by the Privy Council in Madzimbamutos case [1969] A.C. 645. I would venture to add two more observations on this doctrine.
First, I can find no trace of its ever being applied during a rebellion to
accord recognition to the judicial or official acts of or under a usurping
power: cf. Madzimbamutos case at p. 728D. Secondly, I think that it
would be a constitutional anomaly for our courts to recognise the validity of
the acts of Macaulay J. as a de facto judge while the executive acts of those
appointing him (which must include his very appointment) are refused
recognition de facto by the executive here. In Lancastrian and Yorkist times the executive, legislative and
judicial functions were not constitutionally differentiated as they are today.
If a king who himself exercised judicial power was statutorily declared to be a
king de facto, it followed almost inevitably that the acts of his judicial
appointees should be accorded de facto recognition. But, in the situation with
which I am concerned, The Queen in Parliament in the United Kingdom has
expressly declared that those who appointed Macaulay J. were non de jure, and
the executive has refused to recognise them as exercising power de facto. For
the judiciary here to recognise the efficacy of the acts of such an appointee
on the ground that he was exercising his office de facto would indeed involve
the state in speaking with two voices. I therefore hold that the doctrine of the validity of the acts of
a de facto officer does not entitle this court to recognise the decree of
Macaulay J. of April 9, 1970, as valid by the municipal law of Rhodesia. [*215] Having come to the conclusion that the crucial judgment in this
case was the divorce decree of April 9, 1970, pronounced by Macaulay J., and
that that decree is not entitled to recognition in an English court, being
pronounced coram non judice by reason of the appointment of Macaulay J. being
invalid under the 1961/64 Constitution, it is strictly unnecessary to consider
whether the decree of restitution of conjugal rights pronounced by Goldin J. on
February 12, 1970, should be accorded recognition. This involves the wider and
alternative argument of counsel for the Attorney-General that since Ndhlovu
v. The Queen no judgment of the High Court of Rhodesia whatsoever is entitled
to recognition by the courts of this country. ordinarily, I would not have
embarked on any investigation not necessary for the decision of the case before
me. Indeed, I should be glad to leave my judgment here. But it seems to me that
it would not be fair to deny to marriage officers in this country such guidance
as I can give, having heard argument on the point. I have already indicated what was decided in Ndhlovus
case and the argument of counsel for the Attorney-General based thereon. He
relied particularly on a passage from a judgment of the Supreme Court of the
United States in Luther v. Borden (1849) 7 Howard (U.S.) 1, 40, part of which
was cited with approval by Beadle C.J. in Ndhlovus case at p. 9. It
reads: Judicial power presupposes an
established government capable of enacting laws and enforcing them after
execution, and of appointing judges to expound and administer them. The
acceptance of the judicial office is a recognition of the authority of the
government from which it is derived. And if the authority of that government is
annulled and overthrown, the power of its courts and other officers is annulled
with it. And if a state court should enter upon the enquiry proposed in this
case, and should come to the conclusion that the government under which it
acted had been put aside and displaced by an opposing government, it would
cease to be a court and be incapable of pronouncing a judicial decision upon
the question it undertook to try. If it decides at all as a court, it
necessarily affirms the existence and authority of the government under which
it is exercising judicial power. Beadle C.J., of course, cited the passage as part of the
proposition: we are exercising judicial power; we are thereby affirming the
existence and authority of the only effective government of this country; and
are therefore sitting by virtue of the 1965 Constitution, since that is the
source from which the only effective government derives its legal power.
Counsel for the Attorney-General relies on the passage for the proposition: the
courts in Rhodesia, by claiming to sit under the 1965 Constitution, are denying
that they are sitting under the 1961/64 Constitution (as, indeed, the Appellate
Division did in Ndhlovus case); but, since the 1961/64 Constitution
is the only legal constitution, the courts in Rhodesia are by their own
assertion not sitting legally at all; so that their judgments are not entitled
to recognition. [*216] But, apart from Greenfield J. and Macaulay J., the judges of the
High Court of Rhodesia were all validly appointed under the 1961/64
Constitution. In the eyes of English law, in my judgment, they can only cease
to be judges of the High Court of Rhodesia in accordance with the machinery of
the 1961/64 Constitution. A mere declaration by a judge that he is not sitting
under the 1961/64 Constitution does not satisfy such machinery. (The possible
effect of a renunciation of allegiance was not argued before me –
presumably because it did not affect any issue raised in the instant case: it
must await decision in a case in which the issue arises.) Still less can I see
that a declaration by three members of the Appellate Division, albeit of great
eminence, can automatically change the legal status of other members of the
judiciary. I am therefore unable to accede to the wider argument of counsel
for the Attorney-General, namely, that the decision in Ndhlovus case
ipso jure rendered all judicial acts in Rhodesia disentitled to recognition. I
am unhappily aware that this ruling will create anomalies through differential
recognition of the acts of judges appointed respectively before and after
U.D.I. – anomalies that are obviously likely to increase with the
passage of time, if no remedial action is taken. But my task is limited to
declaring the law as I see it: any remedial action that seems to be called for
is a matter for the executive or the legislature. Conclusion So far as I am able to judge, the wife has been ill-used
matrimonially, and is now the victim of political circumstances for which she
has no responsibility. It is therefore with reluctance that I find that the law
enjoins me to dismiss her petition. In my view this case is yet one further illustration of the
unsatisfactory basis of the divorce jurisdiction of the English court and of
the now completely outmoded legal concept that the domicile of a married woman
is dependent on that of her husband: Lord Advocate v. Jaffrey [1921] 1 A.C. 146.
The appropriate authorities may wish to consider this aspect of the case also. Petition dismissed. |